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Journal of Applied Physiology

Low metformin causes a more oxidized mitochondrial NADH/NAD redox state in hepatocytes and inhibits gluconeogenesis by a redox-independent mechanism

In intestinal epithelial cells, this enhanced contractile tension induces centripetal contraction of the perijunctional actomyosin ring, leading to internalization and reorganization of junctional proteins, including claudins, occludin, ZO-1, and adherens junction components, resulting in reversible TJ opening and increased paracellular permeability

doi: 10.1016/0304-4165(77)90152-0

At the signaling pathway level, chromium impedes kinase cascades that impair insulin signaling, consequently improving insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues

Dehydroascorbate reductase consumes reduced glutathione to produce ascorbate, which is then used for the detoxification of hydrogen peroxide